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Mangrove forests are among the most productive and ecologically critical ecosystems on Earth, and within Komodo National Park they form an indispensable bridge between the terrestrial and marine worlds. Fringing sheltered bays and tidal inlets across Komodo, Rinca, and the park's smaller islands, these salt-tolerant forests function simultaneously as fish nurseries, carbon vaults, coastal armour, and wildlife refuges — all while remaining among the least celebrated features of a park better known for dragons and coral reefs. Understanding them is essential to understanding how the park's entire food web is held together.
Quick Facts
| Attribute | Detail |
|---|---|
| Main genera present | Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Aegiceras |
| Key ecological function | Fish & invertebrate nursery; blue-carbon store; coastal protection; wildlife habitat |
| Where in the park | Sheltered bays and tidal inlets of Komodo, Rinca, Padar, and the smaller satellite islands |
| UNESCO status | Part of Komodo National Park World Heritage Site (inscribed 1991) |
| IUCN ecosystem classification | Mangrove (MFT1.2 — Intertidal forests and shrublands) |
| Primary threats | Coastal development, sedimentation, rising sea level, climate warming |
| Carbon significance | Mangroves store 3–5× more carbon per unit area than tropical rainforest (global literature) |
Distribution within the Park
Komodo National Park occupies roughly 1,733 km² of land and 1,214 km² of marine area across a volcanic archipelago in the Sape Strait between Sumbawa and Flores in eastern Indonesia. Mangroves colonise wherever two conditions are met: sheltered water that suppresses wave energy and a shallow gradient that allows tidal inundation. In the park's topographically rugged landscape, those conditions arise in discrete pockets — particularly the northern and eastern bays of Komodo Island (notably Loh Liang and Loh Sebita), the sheltered inlets of Rinca Island (Loh Buaya and Loh Kima), and the tidal margins of several smaller islands including Gili Motang and parts of the Nusa Kode group.
The total mangrove extent within the park is modest in absolute terms — the exact figure varies across survey years and methodologies and should not be stated with false precision — but the ecological weight these forests carry far exceeds their footprint. Monk, de Fretes & Reksodiharjo-Lilley (1997) identified mangroves as one of the defining coastal communities of the Nusa Tenggara bioregion, noting their role in supporting both inshore fisheries and the broader terrestrial fauna of these islands.
The forests are typically narrow fringing stands rather than expansive continuous tracts, a reflection of the park's steep coastal topography. Width ranges from a few metres at exposed headlands to several hundred metres in the most sheltered embayments. Where fringing mangroves give way landward to intertidal mudflat, and seaward to seagrass and reef, the three ecosystems form a tightly linked coastal continuum that underpins the park's exceptional marine productivity.
Species Composition and Zonation
Like mangroves globally, the Komodo park forests are dominated by a relatively small set of highly specialised tree families, each occupying a characteristic position along the intertidal gradient. The Nusa Tenggara region supports a subset of the broader Indo-West Pacific mangrove flora; species diversity is somewhat lower than in the mega-diverse mangrove swamps of Borneo or New Guinea, but functional diversity remains high.
Seaward Pioneer Zone
Rhizophora species — most commonly Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata in the Indo-Pacific — typically occupy the seaward edge and waterway margins, where they are most regularly submerged. Their iconic arching prop roots (stilt roots) descend from the trunk and main branches to form a dense interlocking lattice that stabilises sediment, slows current velocity, and creates sheltered interstitial habitat for juvenile fish and invertebrates. Sonneratia species, recognisable by their prominent pencil-like pneumatophores and large, sweetly scented flowers, are also pioneers on soft, recently deposited mud.
Mid-Intertidal Zone
Bruguiera species occupy the middle intertidal band. Their distinctive knee roots — loop-shaped projections that emerge from cable roots running through the sediment — provide oxygenation to roots buried in anaerobic waterlogged soil. Bruguiera gymnorhiza is widespread in this region and frequently attains canopy-forming dimensions, making it a structurally important component of mature stands.
Landward Zone
Ceriops (particularly Ceriops tagal) and Avicennia species occupy higher, less frequently inundated ground toward the landward edge. Avicennia — the grey or white mangroves — are among the most salt-tolerant of all mangrove genera and can persist in hypersaline conditions that exclude other species. Their respiratory organs are pneumatophores: pencil-thin upright projections that emerge from the sediment surface and contain spongy aerenchyma tissue that allows gas exchange even when the root system is submerged. Aegiceras corniculatum (river mangrove) may also be present in brackish upper-intertidal reaches.
Key Botanical Insight
Mangroves are not a single taxonomic group but an ecological guild — plants from at least 16–24 families that have independently evolved tolerance to tidal inundation, saline substrates, and anaerobic sediments. What unites them are convergent physiological and structural adaptations rather than shared ancestry, making them a striking example of evolutionary parallel innovation.
Physiological Adaptations to Tidal Life
Surviving in the intertidal zone demands solutions to challenges that would kill most plants: saltwater toxicity, oxygen-starved waterlogged sediment, physical instability, and twice-daily submersion. Mangroves have evolved a suite of adaptations to each.
Salt Management
Different genera employ contrasting strategies. Rhizophora and Bruguiera are salt excluders: their roots possess ultra-filtration membranes that block up to 97–99% of sodium ions at the root surface (Scholander et al. 1962, cited in Tomlinson 1986). Avicennia, by contrast, is a salt excreter: it absorbs seawater but expels excess salt through specialised glands on the leaf surface, which is why Avicennia leaves feel gritty and taste noticeably salty. Some species also concentrate excess salt in older leaves and shed them, effectively exporting the salt load.
Aerial Root Systems and Oxygen Supply
The sediments beneath mangrove forests are typically anoxic — black, sulphide-rich, and depleted of oxygen. Each genus has evolved a different solution. Prop roots and knee roots expose large root surface areas to the air at low tide, while pneumatophores act as snorkels, projecting above the sediment surface and equipped with lenticels (pores) through which oxygen diffuses to the subterranean root system. This aerenchyma-based gas transport is essential for the aerobic cellular respiration needed to fuel active root growth and ion exclusion.
Viviparous Propagules
Perhaps the most remarkable adaptation is vivipary: many mangrove species — notably Rhizophora and Bruguiera — germinate their seeds while still attached to the parent tree, producing elongated hypocotyls (propagules) that can reach 15–65 cm before they drop. When they fall, they either plant themselves upright in the soft sediment below or float away on currents and establish elsewhere. This strategy bypasses the vulnerable early germination stage in a hostile saline environment, giving seedlings a developmental head start. Avicennia and Sonneratia show a less extreme form, producing "crypto-viviparous" propagules that are partially developed at dispersal.
Ecological Functions
Fish and Invertebrate Nursery
The structural complexity of mangrove root systems — particularly the submerged prop-root lattice of Rhizophora — provides shelter and foraging habitat for an enormous diversity of juvenile fish and invertebrates. Mangroves function as nurseries because they offer prey-rich conditions, physical refuge from predators, and warmer, shallower water than adjacent reef environments. Numerous commercially and ecologically important reef fish species — groupers, snappers, parrotfish, and emperors — have been documented using mangroves as juvenile habitat in the Indo-Pacific before recruiting to coral reef communities at maturity (Mumby et al. 2004, Nature).
Invertebrate diversity is also high. Fiddler crabs (Uca spp.) and mud crabs (Scylla spp.) bioturbate the sediment, enhancing aeration; mollusks including oysters and gastropods encrust roots and rocks; and shrimps use the intertidal zone as a feeding and refuge habitat. The mud surface supports dense populations of mudskippers (Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus species) — air-breathing fish that are among the most visually conspicuous inhabitants of the intertidal zone and an attraction for wildlife observers.
Connectivity with Coral Reefs and Seagrass
The park's mangroves do not function in isolation. They are connected in a trophic and physical continuum with the adjacent seagrass beds (particularly Thalassia, Halodule, and Cymodocea species) and the coral reefs of the Coral Triangle that surround the park's islands. Organic matter and nutrients exported from mangroves as leaf litter and dissolved organic carbon subsidise both seagrass and reef communities. Juvenile fish use all three habitat types in succession, and mobile species such as reef fish, sea turtles, and dugongs move fluidly between mangrove, seagrass, and reef during their life cycles or daily foraging circuits.
Research in comparable Indo-Pacific seascapes has demonstrated that reef fish biomass near reefs connected to mangroves can be significantly greater than at isolated reef sites (Mumby et al. 2004). Within Komodo National Park, this connectivity is a principal reason why the park's reefs — already exceptional by global standards — maintain the productivity they do.
Shorebird and Waterbird Feeding Grounds
Mangrove forests and their adjacent mudflats are critical foraging and roosting habitat for a diversity of shorebirds and waterbirds. Within the park, observers regularly record species such as white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster), various egrets and herons, kingfishers, and migratory waders that pass through on the East Asian–Australasian Flyway. The mangrove canopy provides nest sites and roost refugia; the exposed mud and root surfaces at low tide serve as foraging grounds for probing and wading birds.
Coastal Protection and Sediment Dynamics
Mangroves provide well-documented physical protection services to coastlines. The dense tangle of prop roots and pneumatophores attenuates wave energy — estimates from global studies suggest wave height reductions of 50–75% across a 500-metre belt of mangrove (Mazda et al. 1997, Mangroves and Salt Marshes). In the context of a tropical archipelago subject to cyclonic swell and storm surge, this buffering function has direct value for coastal infrastructure and the communities that live near it.
Equally important is sediment trapping. As tidal currents decelerate within the mangrove canopy, suspended sediment settles out and accumulates. Over time, this sediment accretion raises the substrate, counteracting — within limits — the effects of relative sea-level rise. Mangroves thus build their own platform, though this capacity has limits and can be overwhelmed by high sedimentation rates from land clearance upstream, by rapid sea-level rise, or by direct physical disturbance of the root structure.
In the context of Komodo National Park, where the volcanic terrain is prone to erosion and the adjacent fishing communities depend on clear water and intact reef for their livelihoods, the sediment-trapping service of mangroves translates directly into cleaner water over reef and seagrass and reduced siltation stress on corals.
Blue Carbon: Mangroves as Climate Regulators
Among the most significant scientific reassessments of mangrove value in recent decades has been the quantification of their role in global carbon cycling — the phenomenon now widely called "blue carbon." Mangrove soils accumulate organic carbon at rates that, on a per-area basis, dwarf those of most terrestrial forests. Carbon burial rates in mangrove soils globally have been estimated at approximately 174 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹, and total carbon stored per hectare — predominantly in the waterlogged, anoxic soil where decomposition is severely slowed — is estimated to be three to five times greater than in tropical upland forests, though estimates vary widely by site and methodology (Donato et al. 2011, Nature Geoscience; Howard et al. 2014, IUCN).
This sequestration works because the anaerobic sediment suppresses microbial decomposition: when mangroves die, much of their biomass is buried intact rather than respired back to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. The carbon then remains locked in place for centuries to millennia, provided the mangrove is not cleared or degraded — at which point stored carbon can be rapidly oxidised and released.
For Komodo National Park, the blue-carbon significance of mangroves is twofold: their conservation protects existing carbon stocks from release, and intact mangrove systems continue to sequester additional carbon over time. In the context of Indonesia's national and international climate commitments, mangrove conservation within World Heritage Sites such as Komodo represents a credible, nature-based contribution to climate change mitigation.
Blue Carbon in Numbers
Globally, mangroves cover less than 0.5% of tropical forest area but are estimated to account for approximately 10% of carbon burial from tropical forests (Donato et al. 2011, Nature Geoscience). If degraded or cleared, soil carbon — which represents the majority of the stored pool — can be released over decades as CO₂, making mangrove loss a significant, though often underestimated, contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.
Connections to Komodo Dragons and Park Wildlife
Mangroves are not peripheral to the park's flagship species — they are part of the Komodo dragon's ecological landscape, particularly for juveniles. Juvenile Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis) spend their first two to three years largely arboreal, sheltering in trees to avoid cannibalism by larger adults. The coastal scrub and woody mangrove fringe — with its labyrinthine root structure and tidal zone — provides additional refuge and prey in the form of small crabs, skinks, and other invertebrates accessible along the intertidal margin.
The water monitor (Varanus salvator), a smaller cousin of the Komodo dragon, is a far more regular and conspicuous presence in mangrove habitat, foraging actively in the intertidal zone for crabs, fish, eggs, and carrion. Crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis) — whose common name reflects their preference for coastal foraging — also exploit mangrove-edge habitat for crustaceans and mollusks at low tide.
In the subtidal zone just seaward of the mangrove roots, reef fish and invertebrates shelter from the strong currents that characterise the Sape Strait, and sea turtles — both green (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) — have been recorded in the sheltered waters of mangrove-fringed bays within the park. The mangrove thus acts as a habitat node that accumulates ecological interactions across an unusually wide range of taxa.
Threats and Pressures
Despite their protected status within a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Komodo's mangroves are not immune from pressure. Several threat categories are relevant:
Coastal Development and Infrastructure
Tourism-related infrastructure — jetties, visitor facilities, and associated clearing — has historically been concentrated near the mangrove-fringed bays that offer the most sheltered anchorage. Each development footprint can fragment mangrove stands and disturb the hydrological connectivity essential for tidal flushing and propagule dispersal.
Sedimentation from Land Use
Agriculture and settlement on the volcanic hillsides of the region accelerate erosion and increase the sediment load delivered to coastal systems. While mangroves trap sediment, excessive sedimentation can bury pneumatophores and prop-root lenticels, effectively suffocating the trees by blocking gas exchange.
Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise
Perhaps the most serious long-term threat is accelerating sea-level rise driven by climate change. Mangroves can track moderate sea-level rise through sediment accretion, but the current rate of global mean sea-level rise — approximately 3.3–3.6 mm yr⁻¹ and accelerating — tests the capacity of many stands, particularly those on coarse or eroding substrates with limited sediment supply. A rise in mean sea temperature also affects phenology, propagule viability, and associated fauna. The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems now lists certain mangrove systems in the Indo-Pacific as vulnerable to collapse under high emissions scenarios (IUCN Global Ecosystem Assessments).
Fuelwood Collection and Aquaculture Conversion
Although far less prevalent within the park than in unprotected coastal zones of Indonesia, traditional collection of mangrove wood for fuel and the conversion of intertidal areas to aquaculture ponds (particularly shrimp and fish farming) remain pressures in the broader seascape. The Nusa Tenggara region as a whole has experienced mangrove loss associated with these activities at the landscape scale (Monk, de Fretes & Reksodiharjo-Lilley 1997).
Conservation and Restoration
Komodo National Park's core legal protections — established by national park status in 1980 and reinforced by UNESCO World Heritage inscription in 1991 — prohibit clearing and extractive use of mangroves within the park boundary. The Balai Taman Nasional Komodo (park authority) conducts patrol and monitoring activities, though enforcement across a large marine area remains resource-intensive.
Community-based mangrove monitoring and, where needed, replanting efforts have been undertaken in partnership with local fishing villages and NGOs operating in the park's buffer zone. Given the documented effectiveness of propagule-based restoration using locally sourced Rhizophora and Avicennia propagules, and the importance of species-appropriate site selection (matching species to tidal inundation regime), restoration programmes in the park region align with global best practice guidance (Kamali & Hashim 2011, Ecological Engineering).
The park's integration into Indonesia's broader blue-carbon policy framework represents a potentially significant lever for mangrove conservation: demonstrating the economic value of standing mangroves as carbon stores could provide an additional financial rationale for their protection beyond biodiversity alone.
Experiencing Mangroves in the Park
For visitors, Komodo's mangroves reward patient observation. Several established liveaboard and day-cruise itineraries include mangrove-fringed bays as anchoring spots, and the sheltered, calm water they provide makes them popular overnight stops. Shallow-water kayaking or paddling in a traditional wooden vessel (jukung) alongside the mangrove fringe — where permitted and accompanied by a guide — offers close views of mudskippers, fiddler crabs, monitor lizards, and kingfishers that a speedboat passage cannot match.
Visitors should note that entry into the mangrove zone requires staying with a licensed guide, as in all parts of the park. Avoiding anchoring in seagrass or in shallow mangrove roots, and refraining from collecting any organisms, are the minimum expectations of responsible visits. The mangrove-fringed bay at Loh Liang on Komodo Island and the inlet at Loh Buaya on Rinca are among the most accessible sites where mangrove habitat can be observed in close proximity to ranger facilities.
Myths vs Facts
| Myth | Fact |
|---|---|
| "Mangroves are useless swamps — just mosquito-infested mud." | Mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth. They support fish nurseries that underpin commercial fisheries, store vastly more carbon than most terrestrial forests, protect coastlines from erosion, and harbour high biodiversity. The "wasteland" perception has driven decades of destructive clearing that science now recognises as catastrophically short-sighted. |
| "Mangroves and coral reefs are unrelated ecosystems." | They are tightly coupled. Juvenile reef fish use mangrove roots as nursery habitat before recruiting to reefs; organic matter and nutrients from mangrove leaf litter subsidise reef productivity; and the sediment-trapping function of mangroves reduces the siltation stress that can smother corals. Reef health in the park is partly a function of mangrove integrity. |
| "Mangrove restoration is simple — just plant seedlings." | Restoration success depends critically on site selection, species choice matched to tidal inundation frequency, and protection from physical disturbance. Planting Rhizophora propagules in areas that are too deeply or too infrequently inundated typically fails. Effective restoration requires ecological diagnosis before planting. |
| "Protected park status means the mangroves are safe." | Legal protection reduces but does not eliminate threats. Climate-driven sea-level rise, upstream sedimentation, and the cumulative effects of anchoring, tourism infrastructure, and boat traffic can all degrade mangroves even within a well-managed World Heritage Site. |
| "Mangroves don't matter to Komodo dragons." | While adults rarely enter mangrove habitat, juvenile dragons exploit coastal scrub and mangrove fringes for shelter and small prey. Moreover, the fish nursery function of mangroves supports the marine productivity that sustains the broader coastal food web — including species such as water monitors and sea eagles that both the park ecosystem and visiting wildlife-watchers value. |
Practical Takeaways
- Visit slowly and quietly. The most rewarding mangrove wildlife — mudskippers, fiddler crabs, monitor lizards, kingfishers — is found by observers who move at a pace that doesn't disturb it. Kayaks or slow boat passes are far better than speedboats.
- Choose liveaboards that anchor responsibly. Ask operators whether they anchor in sand or use mooring buoys rather than dropping anchors in seagrass or shallow mangrove root zones.
- Carry no waste into the mangroves. Plastic debris that enters the root system is extremely difficult to remove and is lethal to intertidal invertebrates.
- Visit with a licensed guide. Entry into the tidal zone and mangrove fringe within the park requires a guide, both for safety and for compliance with park regulations.
- Appreciate the bigger picture. Every healthy mangrove stand you observe is actively trapping sediment, nurturing fish, and locking carbon into the soil beneath your kayak — services that operate invisibly but at ecologically significant scale.
- Support NGOs active in the area. Organisations working on mangrove monitoring and community-based coastal management in and around Komodo National Park rely on visitor interest and funding to sustain their work.
Frequently Asked Questions
How many mangrove species occur in Komodo National Park?
The park contains representatives of the main mangrove genera of the Indo-West Pacific, including Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Bruguiera, Ceriops, and Aegiceras. Exact species-level inventories specific to the park are limited in the published literature; Monk, de Fretes & Reksodiharjo-Lilley (1997) provide the most comprehensive regional assessment. The diversity is moderate by Indonesian standards — lower than in the mega-diverse mangroves of Kalimantan but functionally representative of Nusa Tenggara.
Where are the best places to see mangroves in the park?
The most accessible sites are the bays adjacent to the main ranger stations: Loh Liang on Komodo Island and Loh Buaya on Rinca Island. Both have mangrove-fringed foreshore visible from the pier and from the boardwalks near the ranger facilities. Several liveaboard itineraries also anchor in smaller, less-visited mangrove bays on the satellite islands.
Do Komodo dragons enter the mangroves?
Adults rarely do so — they prefer open savanna and dry monsoon forest where their large body size is less encumbered. Juveniles, however, exploit coastal scrub and the woody mangrove fringe as refuge habitat. Water monitors (Varanus salvator) are the more regular and conspicuous mangrove foragers in the park.
Why are mangroves called "blue carbon" ecosystems?
"Blue carbon" refers to the carbon stored and sequestered by coastal and marine ecosystems — mangroves, seagrasses, and saltmarshes. The term distinguishes coastal carbon cycling (blue) from terrestrial forest carbon cycling (green). Mangroves store the majority of their carbon in waterlogged, anoxic soil where decomposition is suppressed, allowing organic matter to accumulate over centuries. This makes them disproportionately important carbon stores despite their relatively small global area.
Are the mangroves in the park threatened?
Yes, though the degree of threat varies. Within the park boundary, direct clearing is prohibited and infrequent. The more insidious threats are climate-driven sea-level rise (which can exceed the mangrove's capacity to accrete sediment and keep pace), increasing sedimentation from eroding hillsides, and the cumulative effects of tourism infrastructure and boat traffic on mangrove-fringed bays.
Can visitors kayak through the mangroves?
Some liveaboard operators include mangrove kayaking in their itineraries where conditions and park regulations permit. Access to the tidal interior of mangrove stands typically requires a licensed guide. Independent entry is not permitted. Visitors should confirm with their operator whether a specific route has regulatory approval before booking specifically for this activity.
How do mangroves support the park's coral reefs?
The relationship operates through several pathways: juvenile reef fish use the mangrove root zone as a predator-free nursery and migrate to reefs as adults, boosting reef fish biomass; organic carbon exported from mangroves (dissolved and particulate) subsidises reef food webs; and the sediment-trapping function of mangroves reduces the turbidity and siltation load that can smother corals. Research in comparable Indo-Pacific seascapes has found higher fish biomass on reefs connected to mangroves than on isolated reefs (Mumby et al. 2004, Nature).
What is the main mangrove genus in the park and why is it ecologically important?
Rhizophora is typically the most structurally prominent genus at the seaward edge and waterway margins. Its arching prop-root lattice is ecologically critical because it creates the complex, sheltered interstitial habitat that juvenile fish and invertebrates rely on for predator refuge and foraging. It is also the genus most associated with active sediment trapping and with measurable wave-energy attenuation. Its viviparous propagules are among the most dispersal-ready of any mangrove genus, making it a natural coloniser of newly available intertidal substrate.
Sources & Further Reading
- Monk, K.A., de Fretes, Y., & Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G. (1997). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Periplus Editions, Singapore. [The standard regional ecological reference for the park's bioregion.]
- Tomlinson, P.B. (1986). The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [Comprehensive botanical account of mangrove structure, physiology, and genera.]
- Donato, D.C., Kauffman, J.B., Murdiyarso, D., Kurnianto, S., Stidham, M., & Kanninen, M. (2011). "Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics." Nature Geoscience, 4, 293–297.
- Mumby, P.J., Edwards, A.J., Arias-González, J.E., et al. (2004). "Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean." Nature, 427, 533–536. [Caribbean study; the connectivity principle is widely supported across Indo-Pacific systems.]
- Howard, J., Hoyt, S., Isensee, K., Pidgeon, E., & Telszewski, M. (eds.) (2014). Coastal Blue Carbon: Methods for Assessing Carbon Stocks and Emissions Factors in Mangroves, Tidal Salt Marshes, and Seagrass Meadows. IUCN, Arlington, Virginia.
- Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Kogo, M., & Hong, P.N. (1997). "Mangroves as a coastal protection from waves in the Tong King Delta, Vietnam." Mangroves and Salt Marshes, 1, 127–135.
- Kamali, B., & Hashim, R. (2011). "Mangrove restoration without planting." Ecological Engineering, 37(2), 387–391. [On site-selection principles for restoration.]
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Komodo National Park" (inscribed 1991). whc.unesco.org/en/list/609
- FAO (2007). The World's Mangroves 1980–2005. FAO Forestry Paper 153. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. [Global mangrove extent and loss data.]
- IUCN. Global Ecosystem Assessment: Intertidal Forests and Shrublands (MFT1.2). IUCN Red List of Ecosystems.