Caci: The Manggarai Whip-Fight Ritual of Flores

Etymology and Cultural Meaning

The term caci derives from two words in Tombo Manggarai: ca, meaning "one," and ci, meaning "test" or "opponent." The compound conveys the idea of a one-on-one trial between individuals — a point of honor settled by personal courage and physical skill rather than by collective force. Some Manggarai speakers also read ci as "try" or "challenge," reinforcing the interpretive frame of the practice as a controlled ordeal rather than warfare.

Linguist Jilis Verheijen, whose Kamus Manggarai (1967) remains the foundational reference for the Manggarai lexicon, documented caci as a ritual category distinct from ordinary fighting (ngancing). Anthropologist Maribeth Erb, who conducted extended fieldwork in both eastern and western Manggarai in the 1990s, emphasises that the word indexes a regulated, adat-governed (customary-law-governed) encounter: the two fighters represent not themselves alone but their clans and, by extension, their ancestors.

In the broader cosmological framework of Manggarai society, caci is understood as an act of cosmic maintenance. The Manggarai conceive of the universe as an ongoing negotiation between complementary forces — male and female, sky and earth, the living and the ancestral dead — that must be periodically renewed through ritual action. Caci is one such renewal act: the contact of whip on shield enacts a symbolic union of complementary principles, and the blood occasionally shed from wounds is understood as a sacrifice that nourishes the soil and ensures the next harvest.

Equipment

Caci equipment consists of weapons, protective gear, costume elements, and musical accessories that together constitute the performer's full ritual identity. All traditional materials derive from the immediate environment and from the domestic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), an animal of deep symbolic importance in Manggarai culture.

Larik (Whip)

The larik is the attacker's weapon. It consists of two components: a handle approximately 50 cm long made from hardwood or rattan, and a striking rope made from dried buffalo or cow skin (locally called lempa). The full whip can extend to approximately 2 metres. The buffalo-hide rope is cut in thin strips, dried until rigid, and attached to the handle. When skillfully wielded, the tip of the larik produces a sharp crack and can leave a welt or laceration on unprotected skin. The whip symbolically represents the male principle, the sky, and paternal ancestry in Manggarai cosmology.

Nggiling (Shield)

The nggiling (also spelled giling) is a round or slightly oval shield held by the defender. It is constructed from dried buffalo hide stretched over a rattan frame, with a wooden grip on the interior. A shield of comparable materials but smaller profile is sometimes called toda. The nggiling symbolises the female principle, the earth, and the womb — complementary to the larik's masculine symbolism. Together, the moment of strike-on-shield enacts a conceptual union of generative opposites.

Panggal (Headdress)

The panggal is a crown-like protective headdress made from hardened buffalo leather, shaped to suggest buffalo horns and wrapped with lengths of coloured sarong cloth. It covers the top and sides of the head and provides partial protection against an opponent's whip. The buffalo-horn form connects the wearer visually to the animal whose hide furnishes much of the ritual equipment, and signals readiness for combat. Goat or horse hair, and sometimes a ndeki (horsetail-like decoration), may be attached at the back.

Sapu (Face Cover)

A face covering or headband, called sapu, is worn across the lower half of the face. Though it obscures much of the face, it is designed to allow adequate vision of the opponent's movements. A strike to the face or head is a terminal event in a caci bout, so the sapu and panggal together form the primary protective system.

Nggorong (Waist Bells)

Nggorong are small metal bells — hollow metal spheres enclosing a stone or metal pellet — fastened at the waist. They produce a rhythmic percussion as the fighter moves, audibly marking the footwork and adding a sonic dimension to the performance. The nggorong are aesthetic as much as they are functional, contributing to the visual and auditory spectacle of the bout.

Costume

Caci performers are traditionally bare-chested during bouts, displaying any wounds clearly as marks of courage. They wear white trousers beneath a songke — the distinctive black-and-gold woven sarong of the Manggarai, decorated with geometric motifs. A selendang (shoulder cloth) and a belt complete the formal attire. The songke is an heirloom textile traditionally woven by women; wearing it in caci links the male performer to the broader household and clan fabric of Manggarai society.

Rules of Engagement

Caci bouts are governed by explicit adat protocols that distinguish the practice from unregulated combat. The rules create a framework in which courage and skill are tested without lasting enmity.

Roles: Each bout pairs two combatants. The attacker is called ata paki (literally, the one who strikes). The defender is called ata ta'ang (the one who blocks). The host village supplies one team of fighters (ata one) while a challenging or visiting village provides another (ata pe'ang or meka landang).

Turn-taking structure: Each exchange is governed by strict alternation. The attacker delivers a set number of strikes — traditionally three consecutive blows — directed at the opponent's torso, from the navel upward. The defender may only block with the nggiling shield; counter-attacking is prohibited during the defender's turn. After the attacker's sequence is complete, roles reverse: the former defender becomes the attacker. This reciprocal structure is fundamental to the ritual logic of caci — it is a mutual test, not a unilateral assault.

Scoring and winning: A strike that lands on the torso scores for the attacker and is celebrated by the crowd. A strike to the face or head is an immediate disqualifying blow, ending that pair's participation. After approximately four full exchanges, the pair steps aside and a new pair enters. There is no single climactic champion declared in the manner of sport; the focus is on the quality of performance across all participants. Witnesses assess a fighter's courage, footwork, and grace as much as the count of strikes landed.

Spirit of the bout: Despite the physical contact, Caci is explicitly framed as a practice of brotherhood. Fighters from opposing villages are guests and hosts to each other; no grudges are to be carried from the field. Participants are typically offered sopi (fermented palm wine) before fighting, a customary gesture that both fortifies courage and signals communal inclusion.

Opening sequence: A full caci event does not begin with combat. It opens with the Danding (also called Tandak Manggarai), a circular dance performed by both men and women. The Danding warms the ritual space, invites ancestral blessing, and formally constitutes the assembled community as participants in the event rather than passive spectators. Only after the Danding does the caci proper begin.

Role of the Nenggo Singer and Gong-Drum Ensemble

Caci is never performed in silence. The musical and vocal dimensions are integral components of the ritual, not optional accompaniment. The performance synthesises three artistic registers simultaneously: lomes (dance and movement), bokak (vocal art), and lime (combat dexterity).

Nenggo (Vocal Tradition)

Nenggo is the traditional sung poetry of the Manggarai, performed in call-and-response style throughout a caci event. Nenggo texts are improvised within a set of formulaic patterns, drawing on genealogical references, agricultural imagery, cosmological allusions, and praise of the fighters' clans. Scholars at Universitas Flores and in the journal Imaji: Jurnal Seni dan Pendidikan Seni have documented the ethical and humanistic values embedded in nenggo texts, noting that the songs simultaneously honour the fighters' lineages and invoke ancestral protection. Academic research conducted in Desa Wae Ajang, Kecamatan Satarmese, Kabupaten Manggarai, has specifically analysed the composition and social function of gong-drum accompaniment alongside nenggo singing.

Singers — men or women — who lead the nenggo chants play a role comparable in some respects to the figure sometimes described in local accounts as ata ralong, the one who "inflames" the fighters' spirit through song. Their improvisational skill and knowledge of clan genealogies are valued qualifications: a skilled nenggo singer draws fighters forward, calls the crowd's attention, and narrates the action in real time.

Gong and Gendang (Drum)

A pair or ensemble of gongs and one or more gendang (double-headed drums) play continuously throughout the caci event. The gendang sets the tempo of the fighters' approach and the rhythm of the danding. Gong patterns mark transitions between phases of the bout. The combined sound of gong, drum, and vocal chant creates the sonic environment within which the fighters' courage is understood to be called forth by the ancestral realm. The instrumental ensemble is positioned on the opposite side of the performance field from the fighters, forming an auditory frame around the ritual space.

Symbolic Meanings

Caci carries multiple layers of meaning that operate simultaneously at the individual, clan, and cosmological levels.

Masculine Virtue and Family Honor

For the individual fighter, caci is a primary arena of masculine self-presentation. Wounds received — particularly welts across the chest and abdomen — are worn with pride rather than shame; they are evidence that a man has stood his ground and accepted the risk of the encounter. The Manggarai concept of masculine virtue (kaba) encompasses physical courage, composure under pressure, and the willingness to represent one's clan without flinching. A fighter who performs well brings honour not to himself alone but to his entire extended family and clan (woe). Conversely, cowardice — flinching, refusing to step forward, or leaving the field prematurely — reflects on the clan's standing in the community.

Ancestor Spirits and Soil Fertility

The most theologically dense dimension of caci concerns the ancestral spirits (wura ceki). The Manggarai worldview holds that the living and the dead exist in continuous reciprocal relationship: ancestors require periodic acknowledgement and offering from the living; in return, they provide protection, agricultural fertility, and social cohesion. Blood shed during caci — from whip strikes to the torso — is not incidental to the ritual; it is the offering itself. The blood falling to the earth is understood as a sacrificial gift to ancestral spirits who, in turn, will ensure good rains and a productive harvest. This logic connects caci directly to the agricultural calendar and explains why it is most prominently performed at harvest festivals rather than at arbitrary times.

Complementarity and Cosmic Balance

The whip and shield are explicitly gendered in Manggarai cosmology: the larik represents the male principle (sky, father, active force) and the nggiling the female (earth, mother, receptive force). The moment of contact between them enacts symbolic procreation — the generation of life from complementary forces. The agricultural intention is literal: caci is designed to secure the fertility of crops. This cosmological dimension explains why caci cannot be reduced to sport or martial arts without losing its functional core.

Performance Contexts

Penti: The Post-Harvest Festival

The most significant context for authentic caci performance is the Penti festival, a multi-day thanksgiving and renewal ceremony held at the end of the agricultural cycle, typically between October and November. Penti marks the boundary between the outgoing year and the incoming one, a liminal period during which ancestral spirits are particularly present and must be properly acknowledged. Caci performances during Penti can last one to three full days, with multiple pairs of fighters cycling through bouts accompanied by continuous gong, drum, and nenggo singing. Traditionally, Penti was held at approximately five-year intervals in any given village, making each occurrence a significant communal gathering.

Weddings

Caci is commonly performed at Manggarai weddings, particularly those involving families of some standing in the community. In this context, the ritual meaning shifts slightly: the performance honors the ancestors of both clans being joined through marriage and asks for their blessing on the new household. The guest-challenger structure — host village against visiting village — mirrors the social structure of the marriage itself, in which two previously distinct family groups are being symbolically united.

Inauguration of the Rumah Gendang

The construction and inauguration of a new rumah gendang (traditional clan house, sometimes called mbaru gendang) is among the most important events in Manggarai community life. Caci is performed in the natas — the cleared field at the center of the traditional village — to consecrate the new building and signal the presence of the ancestors who will inhabit and protect it.

Government and Guest Welcomes

From at least the mid-twentieth century, caci has been performed as a form of welcome for important government officials, visiting dignitaries, and, increasingly, international guests and tourists. This context strips away the agricultural liturgical frame but preserves the visual and performative elements of the practice. Local and regional governments in Flores regularly commission caci demonstrations for official events.

Modern Adaptations and Tourism Performances

Tourism has significantly altered the conditions under which many visitors encounter caci. In village-tourism settings, the multi-day Penti format is compressed into a one-hour demonstration; the danding opening is abbreviated; the nenggo singing may be reduced to short passages; and the number of fighter pairs is limited. This condensation is pragmatically driven — it accommodates visitor schedules and reduces the logistical demands on the host community — but it unavoidably detaches the combat from its agricultural and cosmological context.

Anthropologist Maribeth Erb has written on the tensions inherent in tourism-oriented caci, noting that the practice risks becoming what she calls "martial arts theatre" — a visually arresting spectacle whose liturgical content is invisible to observers unfamiliar with the underlying belief system. At the same time, tourism income has provided communities with an economic rationale for maintaining the practice and its associated skills, even as urban migration and changing agricultural practices erode the ritual calendar that historically generated caci occasions.

The most carefully managed tourism presentation of caci is arguably that offered by Melo Village (Kampung Melo), where the village cooperative known as Compang To'e consults with community members on how to represent caci to visitors. Melo fighters wear full traditional costume; the gong-drum ensemble plays throughout; and visitors are occasionally invited to observe — and minimally participate in — the danding. The cooperative retains tourism revenue within the village, reducing leakage to external operators.

The Indonesian government's broader Desa Wisata (tourist village) programme, which has been piloted in Wae Rebo and adapted for several Manggarai highland communities, requires that a substantial share of tourism revenue remain within the village cooperative. This structural requirement provides at least a partial counterweight to the commodification pressures that have hollowed out caci performances in more commercially oriented tourist venues in Labuan Bajo.

Indonesian Government Designation as Intangible Heritage

Caci — listed under its province of origin, Nusa Tenggara Timur (East Nusa Tenggara) — was officially designated as Warisan Budaya Takbenda (Intangible Cultural Heritage, abbreviated WBTB) of Indonesia by the Ministry of Education and Culture (Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Kemdikbud) on 16 November 2013. It was item number 60 in the cohort of 77 cultural works designated in that year's designation session, administered under Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Nomor 106 Tahun 2013.

The designation system operates within the framework of Indonesia's ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003), which Indonesia acceded to by Presidential Regulation No. 78 of 2007. Kemdikbud's online registry is publicly accessible at warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id; the caci entry falls under the domain of traditional games and martial practices (permainan tradisional).

The designation functions as a formal statement of national cultural significance rather than a legal protection instrument. In practical terms, it has increased the visibility of caci within national cultural promotion frameworks — including the Ministry of Tourism's Wonderful Indonesia marketing materials — and has supported the inclusion of caci demonstrations in official state events. The Indonesian Heritage Agency (Badan Pelestarian Kebudayaan), operating under the restructured Kemdikbud system, maintains ongoing documentation and inventory responsibilities for designated intangible heritage, including periodic review of the safeguarding status of practices like caci.

Where Visitors Can Watch Caci

Authentic caci performances tied to the agricultural and ritual calendar are unpredictable for visitors with fixed itineraries. The Penti festival occurs between October and November, but its precise timing in any given village follows the local ritual calendar rather than the Gregorian calendar. The most reliable strategy for witnessing full-context caci is to arrive in Manggarai during the October–November window and ask locally — through hotel staff, guides, or the local tourism office in Ruteng — whether any Penti ceremonies are planned in nearby villages.

Melo Village (Kampung Melo)

Melo Village is the most accessible site for on-demand caci demonstrations. Located approximately 17 km (about 40 minutes by road) from Labuan Bajo at an elevation of around 600 metres, Melo is managed by the Compang To'e cooperative. Demonstrations are bookable in advance through licensed tour operators in Labuan Bajo. The fee (approximately IDR 1,000,000 per group as of recent reports) goes to the cooperative. Visitors receive a traditional welcome, witness the danding, and observe multiple caci bouts with full costuming and live music.

Todo Village

Todo, located in Kecamatan Satar Mese Barat approximately 1.5–2 hours by road from Ruteng, is the former political center of the historic Manggarai kingdom. It hosts caci at significant cultural events, including clan gatherings of Todo's royal descendants. Unlike Melo, performances are not daily or on-demand; they require advance arrangement, ideally facilitated by a local guide or the Ruteng-area tourism cooperative. Todo is worth visiting in its own right for its megalithic compang altar, historic rumah gendang, and Dutch colonial artefacts.

Ruteng and Surroundings

Ruteng, the capital of Manggarai Regency and the largest city in the highland zone, is the cultural heartland of caci. The Manggarai Regency tourism office can advise on upcoming ceremonial caci events in villages within driving distance. Nearby sites that sometimes host caci include Taga Laing (on the road toward Leda) and Pu'u Ranggu (accessed via Cancar, off the main Labuan Bajo–Ruteng highway). These are authentic village venues rather than purpose-built tourism sites.

Liang Bua Area

The Liang Bua cave — the archaeological site where Homo floresiensis was discovered, approximately 45 minutes from Ruteng — is itself a destination on the cultural tourism circuit of inland Flores. Village communities in the Liang Bua area participate in the wider Manggarai cultural sphere; visitors who combine a Liang Bua visit with a stay in Ruteng are well positioned to ask locally about caci events in the surrounding villages.

Wae Rebo

Wae Rebo, the UNESCO-recognised highland village at approximately 1,100 metres elevation in the Manggarai highlands, is primarily known for its Mbaru Niang conical houses. Caci is part of the living cultural repertoire of Wae Rebo's community, but — consistent with the village's careful management of tourism — it is performed in ceremonial context rather than as a daily demonstration. Visitors staying overnight at Wae Rebo have the best chance of witnessing or learning about forthcoming caci events from the village elders.

Myths vs Facts

Claim	Evidence-Based Assessment
Caci is a blood sport performed to determine a winner.	Caci is a ritual practice governed by adat protocols. Determining an overall champion is secondary to the quality and completeness of the performance. Blood shed is interpreted as an offering, not a sign of defeat.
Whips used in Caci are made of rattan.	The larik whip's striking rope is made from dried buffalo or cow hide, not rattan. The handle may incorporate rattan as structural material, but the weapon-element is buffalo-hide leather.
Caci is performed only by trained warriors or specialists.	Any adult Manggarai man may participate in caci. Skill is cultivated through observation and practice; there is no formal warrior caste. Young men traditionally learn from watching experienced fighters at community events.
Tourist caci in Labuan Bajo is equivalent to ritual caci.	Tourist demonstrations preserve the combat and costume elements but typically omit the agricultural liturgy, the full danding, and the nenggo singing that constitute caci's ritual core. Awareness of this distinction is important for visitors seeking cultural understanding rather than spectacle.
Caci is unique to Manggarai and has no parallels elsewhere.	Related whip-and-shield ritual combat forms are documented in Ngada (neighboring regency), and whip-fighting traditions exist across parts of eastern Indonesia. What is distinctive is the specific Manggarai combination of cosmological framing, agricultural context, nenggo singing, and equipment symbolism.
Fighters must draw blood to fulfill the ritual obligation.	Bloodletting is not a prerequisite for a valid caci performance. When it occurs, it is interpreted sacrally; when it does not, the performance is equally valid. The ritual efficacy derives from the proper conduct of all elements, not from injury alone.

Practical Takeaways for Visitors

• Book through the village cooperative, not street touts. For Melo Village, book through a licensed tour operator; for Todo or Ruteng-area villages, contact the Manggarai Regency tourism office or a Ruteng-based guide. This ensures revenue reaches the performing community.
• Arrive before the danding begins. The opening circle dance sets the ritual frame. Arriving mid-bout means missing the sequence that contextualises the combat.
• Ask before photographing. The kepala adat (customary head) or cooperative leader can advise on photography norms. Close-up photography of fighters in motion is generally acceptable; photography of the compang altar or clan house interior may require specific permission.
• Do not offer individual tips to fighters. In cooperative-managed venues, appreciation is best expressed through contributions to the village fund. In ceremonial contexts, the fighters are fulfilling a ritual obligation rather than performing for remuneration.
• Learn a few words of Manggarai. Basic courtesies — greeting elders, thanking the host community — go far and signal genuine respect for the cultural context.
• Time your visit for October–November. This window overlaps with the Penti festival calendar and offers the best chance of witnessing caci in its full ritual context rather than as a demonstration.
• Read before you go. Erb's work on Manggarai culture and Verheijen's linguistic documentation provide essential context for understanding what you are witnessing. Even a short preparation significantly enriches the experience.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Caci?

Caci is a traditional ritual whip-fight performed by the Manggarai people of western Flores, Indonesia. Two male participants face off one-on-one: the attacker (ata paki) uses a larik — a rattan-and-buffalo-hide whip — while the defender (ata ta'ang) blocks with a nggiling, a round buffalo-hide shield. It is a recognised intangible cultural heritage of Indonesia, designated by the Ministry of Education and Culture in 2013.

When and where is Caci performed?

Caci is most commonly performed during the Penti post-harvest festival (usually October–November), at weddings, at the inauguration of a new rumah gendang (clan house), and during government or guest-welcoming ceremonies. Tourist performances are available year-round in Melo Village (17 km from Labuan Bajo) and can sometimes be arranged in Todo and Ruteng with advance notice.

Is Caci dangerous?

Genuine ritual caci can result in welts and cuts to the torso; a strike to the face results in an immediate loss. Combatants wear protective headgear (panggal) and face coverings. Any wounds sustained are viewed culturally as offerings to ancestors that nourish the soil — not as failure. Tourist demonstrations are managed to reduce injury risk while preserving the authentic form of the bout.

Can women participate in Caci?

Caci combat is performed exclusively by men. Women participate in the opening Danding (Tandak Manggarai) circle dance that precedes the bouts, and they are an integral part of the audience and the nenggo singing that accompanies the event. Their presence as observers, singers, and community participants is integral to the ritual atmosphere.

Is Caci an intangible cultural heritage of Indonesia?

Yes. Caci — originating from Nusa Tenggara Timur (East Nusa Tenggara) — was officially designated as Warisan Budaya Takbenda (Intangible Cultural Heritage) of Indonesia by the Ministry of Education and Culture on 16 November 2013, listed as item number 60 among 77 cultural works designated that year.

What is the difference between Caci and ordinary martial arts?

Caci is a ritual practice embedded in an agricultural and cosmological worldview. Unlike competitive martial arts, Caci bouts are governed by adat (customary law): there is strict turn-taking, the goal is to demonstrate courage and skill rather than to subdue an opponent, and any bloodshed is interpreted as a sacred offering to ancestral spirits. The performance combines dance (lomes), vocal art (nenggo), and combat skill (lime), all simultaneously.

Sources and Further Reading

1. Erb, M. (1999). The Manggaraians: A Guide to Traditional Lifestyles. Times Editions. [Primary ethnographic reference for Manggarai culture including caci.]
2. Verheijen, J.A.J. (1967). Kamus Manggarai. 's-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff. [Foundational Manggarai lexicographic work documenting caci terminology.]
3. Kemdikbud (2013). 77 Karya Budaya Ditetapkan sebagai Warisan Budaya Takbenda Indonesia Tahun 2013. Direktorat Warisan dan Diplomasi Budaya. Available at: kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id [Official designation record; caci listed as item 60, province NTT.]
4. Kemdikbud. Warisan Budaya Takbenda Indonesia — Online Registry. Available at: warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id
5. Allerton, C. (2013). Potent Landscapes: Place and Mobility in Eastern Indonesia. University of Hawaiʻi Press. [Includes analysis of Manggarai ritual and material culture.]
6. Forth, G. (2004). Nage Birds: Classification and Symbolism among an Eastern Indonesian People. Routledge. [On eastern Indonesia ethnozoology; see also Forth's ethnozoology of Flores.]
7. Tinjauan Nilai-Nilai Etika Nyanyian Tradisi Nenggo pada Pertunjukan Tari Caci di Manggarai NTT. Academia.edu preprint. Available at: academia.edu [Scholarly analysis of nenggo singing ethics in caci.]
8. IJSSR (2023). “CACI: The Contradiction Between the Nature and Practice of Modern Manggarai Society with Its Relevance to the Character Formation of the Millennial Generation.” International Journal of Social Service and Research. Available at: ijssr.ridwaninstitute.co.id
9. Atlantis Press (2019). “Tradition of Caci Manggarai: The Spirit of Politics of Customary Inheritance Law for Democratic and Gender Equitable Law.” Available at: atlantis-press.com
10. Wikipedia EN. “Caci (fighting).” Available at: en.wikipedia.org [Used as entry point; primary sources cited above verified independently.]
11. Flores Sustainable Travel Blog. “Caci in Manggaraian culture.” Available at: floressustainabletravel.blog [Location guidance and community context.]